A new book offers a fresh perspective on the history of the Maghreb region of North Africa, moving beyond traditional narratives focused on colonial conquest and political upheaval. Published in 2000, but gaining renewed attention, the work by Majid Embarech, a professor of contemporary Maghreb history at the University of the Côte d’Azur, aims to integrate recent historical scholarship and provide a long-term view of the region’s development.
Pre-Colonial Maghreb: Foundations of a Region
Embarech highlights commonalities among the Maghreb nations – Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia – including their Mediterranean location, relatively homogenous political structures, and the unifying influence of Islam and the Arabic language. He notes that while Arabic served as a cultural and religious cornerstone, the region also contained diverse communities. Jewish communities, though a minority (less than 5% of the population in the 18th century), played a role in Maghrebi society, despite their status as dhimmis (protected, but with limitations). The presence of enslaved people, often originating from sub-Saharan Africa (Chad, Niger, Nigeria) and transported via caravan routes, is also detailed, with the author noting the disparaging view held by Arab-Muslim leaders towards Black Africans.
Despite these unifying factors, tribal structures remained a significant source of heterogeneity, existing as pre-colonial political units dating back to the 14th century. The book details the structure of the Regency of Algiers, a group of 10,000 to 15,000 people forming an economic and pastoral unit, caught between Spanish and Turkish influences. Turkish presence, though substantial, numbered fewer than 10,000 men. The period also saw the rise and eventual decline of corsair activity, peaking in the early 18th century, as it was gradually replaced by tribute payments.
French Conquest of Algeria and its Consequences (1830-1898)
The book examines the complex origins of the French conquest of Algeria in 1830, stemming from an unpaid debt for a wheat delivery. The initial landing at Sidi Ferruch in June 1830 culminated in the capture of Algiers on July 5th. However, the subsequent question of what to do with Algeria – abandon it, occupy the coast, or pursue full conquest – led to a protracted and ultimately total conquest spanning 27 years. The 1848 constitution declared Algeria “French territory” but subject to “special laws,” initiating a process of assimilation, granting Algeria limited representation in the French parliament.
Under Napoleon III, the colonization process accelerated, aiming to establish Algeria as a European settlement colony. The period saw a shifting balance between military and civilian control. The book details the incomplete “pacification” of Algeria, marked by sporadic uprisings and the implementation of a harsh legal code known as the “indigénat” applied specifically to the native population.
Colonial Expansion and Control (1881-1920)
The conquest of Algeria, the author argues, was not a planned endeavor but rather a process built incrementally based on circumstances. A dual economy emerged, characterized by a subsistence agricultural sector alongside a European-dominated agricultural sector focused on exports, particularly wine. By the early 20th century, Algeria had become the fourth-largest wine producer globally, creating a stark economic disparity between European settlers and the Algerian population. This period also witnessed rapid urbanization and population growth.
The book contrasts the French approach to colonization in Algeria with its expansion into Tunisia, and Morocco. In Tunisia, Ahmed Bey’s attempts at modernization in the mid-19th century were hampered by a lack of skilled personnel and financial constraints. France gradually asserted control, establishing a protectorate in 1881 while maintaining the Bey’s position. In Morocco, initial defeats of the Moroccan army led to increased European influence, culminating in a treaty recognizing French and British interests in 1880. The establishment of a French protectorate in 1912 marked the end of Moroccan independence, sparking resistance and revolt.
The Rise of Nationalism and the Path to Independence
The interwar period saw the emergence of nationalist movements across the Maghreb. In Tunisia, the Destour party advocated for a constitution through legal means, while a more radical faction, the Néo-Destour led by Habib Bourguiba, emerged, criticizing the Destour’s perceived passivity. Algeria saw the formation of the Young Algerians movement and, later, the Étoile nord-africaine, which demanded outright independence. In Morocco, the Rif War (1921-1927) demonstrated strong resistance to colonial rule.
The economic crisis of the 1930s exacerbated social tensions, with limited relief provided to the indigenous population. The brief period of the Popular Front government in France (1936) raised hopes for reform, but a proposed plan for Algeria was rejected by French settlers. This led to the formation of the Algerian People’s Party (PPA) in 1937.
World War II and the Post-War Struggle for Independence
World War II saw the Maghreb mobilized to support the French war effort, with significant numbers of men and agricultural products contributed. The region came under Vichy control, implementing its antisemitic policies. The Allied landings in North Africa in 1942 marked a turning point, with nationalists demanding independence. The post-war period witnessed growing nationalist movements, fueled by the broader wave of decolonization. The book details the differing paths to independence for each nation. Morocco and Tunisia gained independence in 1956 and 1957 respectively, while Algeria endured a brutal eight-year war before achieving independence in 1962.
Nation Building and Globalization
Following independence, the Maghreb nations sought to establish their international positions, initially aligning with the Non-Aligned Movement. Economic development remained a challenge, with continued reliance on Europe and emerging partnerships with Gulf states. The book details the political trajectories of each country, including the authoritarian rule of Habib Bourguiba in Tunisia, the monarchy in Morocco under Hassan II and Mohammed VI, and the turbulent history of Algeria, marked by a decade of civil war in the 1990s. The Arab Spring uprisings of 2011 brought renewed calls for political and economic reform, but the outcomes have varied, with Tunisia experiencing a resurgence of authoritarianism under President Kaïs Saïed, Morocco implementing limited reforms, and Algeria remaining largely unchanged.
The book provides a comprehensive and nuanced account of the Maghreb’s history, emphasizing the complexities and contradictions of its colonial and post-colonial experience. It offers a valuable resource for understanding the region’s contemporary challenges and its ongoing search for stability and prosperity.
