Gender Ambiguity as a Tool of Power in Ancient Mesopotamia
- The assinnu were the religious servants of the major Mesopotamian goddess of love and war, Ištar.
- Also known by the Sumerians as Inanna, she was a warrior god, and held the ultimate political power to legitimize kings.
- The assinnu were viewed by some early scholars as a type of religious sex worker.
Today, trans people face politicization of their lives and vilification from politicians, media and parts of broader society.
But in some of history’s earliest civilizations, gender-diverse people were recognized and understood in a wholly different way.
As early as 4,500 years ago in ancient Mesopotamia, as a notable example, gender-diverse people held critically important roles in society with professional titles. these included the cultic attendants of the major deity Ištar, called assinnu, and high-ranking royal courtiers called ša rēši.
What the ancient evidence tells us is that these people held positions of power because of their gender ambiguity, not despite it.
Where is Mesopotamia and who lived there?
Mesopotamia is a region primarily made up of modern Iraq, but also parts of Syria, T
The assinnu were the religious servants of the major Mesopotamian goddess of love and war, Ištar.
The queen of heaven, Ištar was the precursor to Aphrodite and Venus.
Also known by the Sumerians as Inanna, she was a warrior god, and held the ultimate political power to legitimize kings.
She also oversaw love, sexuality and fertility. In the myth of her Their gender fluidity was bestowed on them by Ištar herself. In a Sumerian hymn, the goddess is described as having the power to
turn a man into a woman and a woman into a man
to change one into the other
to dress women in clothes for men
to dress men in clothes for women
to put spindles into the hands of men
and to give weapons to women.
The assinnu were viewed by some early scholars as a type of religious sex worker.
Having their gender transformed by Ištar herself, the assinnu could walk between the divine and the mortal as they maintained the wellbeing of both the gods and humanity.
Who were the ša rēši?
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Usually described as eunuchs, the ša rēši were attendants to the king.
Court “eunuchs” have been recorded in many cultures throughout history. However, the term did not exist in Mesopotamia, and the ša rēši had their own distinct title.
The Akkadian term ša rēši literally means “one of the head”, and refers to the king’s closest courtiers. Their duties in the palace varied,and they could hold several high-ranking posts at the same time.
ša ziqnī (“bearded one”), who had descendants. In mesopotamian cultures, beards signified one’s manhood, and so a beardless man would go directly against the norm. Yet, reliefs show the ša rēši wore the same dress as other royal men, and so were able to display authority alongside other elite males.
Historically, individuals holding significant positions of power – including in government – have frequently maintained concurrent financial interests in businesses, creating potential conflicts of interest. This practise has been documented across various political systems and eras,though the specific regulations governing such arrangements have evolved. The issue stems from the possibility that personal financial gains could influence official decisions. While not inherently illegal, such arrangements raise concerns about impartiality and public trust. Historically,disclosure requirements were often lax or non-existent,making it challenging to assess the extent of these conflicts. For example, in the early United States, many Founding Fathers were landowners and merchants who simultaneously served in public office. While not always a direct conflict, their economic interests were frequently enough intertwined with their political actions. Mount Vernon’s Digital Encyclopedia details examples of this during the founding era. The United States has progressively implemented regulations to address conflicts of interest for government officials. The Ethics in Government Act of 1978, as amended, is a key piece of legislation. This Act established the Office of Government Ethics (OGE) and requires financial disclosure reports from high-level executive branch officials.These reports detail assets, income, and outside activities, aiming to identify potential conflicts. The Office of Government Ethics provides detailed information on the Act’s provisions. In 2014, amendments to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act further strengthened disclosure requirements for members of Congress. The full text of the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007 (Public Law 110-81) is available through GovInfo.gov. Many countries have similar regulations to address conflicts of interest, though the specifics vary significantly. The United kingdom, as a notable example, has the Ministerial Code, wich sets out standards of conduct for ministers, including rules on declaring interests and avoiding conflicts. The UK Ministerial Code is publicly available on the UK government website. Canada’s Conflict of Interest Act applies to federal public office holders and outlines rules regarding private interests that could conflict with their duties.The full text of the Canadian conflict of Interest Act can be found on the Justice Canada website. As of January 17, 2026, there have been no major legislative changes to US federal conflict of interest laws as 2024. However, ongoing debates continue regarding the scope of financial disclosure requirements, particularly concerning investments held through blind trusts and the influence of lobbying activities. Recent court cases concerning the financial interests of Supreme Court justices have brought renewed attention to the issue of transparency and accountability. SCOTUSblog provides ongoing coverage of Supreme Court cases, including those related to ethics and conflicts of interest. Internationally, the European Union is considering revisions to its ethics guidelines for Commissioners, focusing on stricter rules regarding post-employment activities. The European Commission’s Press Corner provides updates on policy developments.
Past Prevalence of individuals in Positions of Power Holding Concurrent Business Interests
United States Regulations Regarding Conflicts of interest
International Examples and Approaches
Recent Developments (as of January 17, 2026)