The Return to the Moon: Artemis vs. Apollo and the Drive for a Sustainable Lunar Presence
After a hiatus of over 50 years, humanity is poised to return to the Moon. The launch of the Artemis II mission, currently scheduled for March 2026, marks a significant step beyond the Apollo program of the 1960s and early 1970s. While Apollo focused on demonstrating the *possibility* of lunar travel, Artemis aims for a sustained and comprehensive presence, establishing a long-term infrastructure for scientific discovery and, potentially, resource utilization.
The core difference lies in the ambition. Apollo was, fundamentally, a race against the Soviet Union. The goal was to land humans on the Moon and return them safely, proving American technological superiority. The missions were relatively short, with astronauts spending roughly a total of two weeks on the lunar surface across all six landings. Artemis, however, is designed to enable humans to live and work on the Moon for extended periods, and to learn how to exploit lunar resources. This requires a fundamentally different approach to infrastructure and mission architecture.
Artemis II will be the first crewed mission of the Artemis program, carrying four astronauts – Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, Christina Koch, and Jeremy Hansen – on a flight path around the Moon. This mission will be historic, marking the first time a woman, a Black astronaut, and a non-American astronaut will travel to the Moon. The mission is designed to test the Orion spacecraft and its life support systems, as well as verify critical operational procedures.
Orion and the European Space Agency’s Role
Central to the Artemis program is the Orion spacecraft, a collaborative effort between NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). The ESA is responsible for building the European Service Module (ESM), which provides propulsion, power, thermal control, and life support for Orion. According to Guillermo González, head of production of the European Service Modules for the Orion spacecraft at ESA, the program represents a significant international collaboration, involving numerous countries and both public and private sectors. This collaborative approach is intended to create the conditions for a future “Lunar Economy.”
Orion differs significantly from the Apollo command and service modules, and even more so from the Space Shuttle. The Shuttle, while capable of carrying a larger crew and cargo, was too heavy to escape Earth’s gravity and travel to the Moon. Orion is smaller and specifically designed for deep-space missions. It lacks the Shuttle’s reusable components and robotic arm, but it possesses the necessary capabilities to reach the Moon, operate in lunar orbit for weeks, and safely return the crew to Earth.
Unlike the Apollo missions, which landed directly on the lunar surface, Orion is not a lander. It will orbit the Moon, and future Artemis missions will utilize a separate Human Landing System (HLS) to transport astronauts to and from the surface. A key component of the Artemis architecture is the Lunar Gateway, a planned space station in lunar orbit. This station will serve as a staging point for lunar landings, a research facility, and a communications hub.
Beyond Demonstration: Building a Lunar Infrastructure
The Artemis program’s long-term vision extends beyond simply revisiting the Moon. It aims to establish a permanent infrastructure on the lunar surface, something that was not a priority during the Apollo era. This infrastructure will include habitats, power generation systems, and resource extraction facilities. The choice of the lunar South Pole as a primary exploration target is driven by the discovery of significant quantities of water ice in permanently shadowed craters. This ice could be used to produce breathable air, rocket propellant, and drinking water, reducing the reliance on Earth-based supplies and making long-duration lunar missions more sustainable.
The Artemis II mission will follow a trajectory that involves orbiting Earth multiple times before embarking on a four-day journey to the Moon. The spacecraft will fly within approximately 7,500 kilometers of the lunar surface before returning to Earth. During the mission, the crew will verify the functionality of all systems and conduct a demonstration of manual control using the ESM’s engines. These capabilities will be crucial for future Artemis missions, particularly for maneuvering and positioning elements of the Lunar Gateway, such as the ESA’s I-Hab module.
The Artemis program is not merely a repeat of Apollo. It represents a fundamental shift in approach, from a sprint to a marathon. The goal is not just to visit the Moon, but to learn to live and work there, paving the way for future exploration of Mars and beyond. As González emphasized, the program is designed to “inspire future generations of engineers and scientists” and to provide the knowledge and experience necessary for even more ambitious space exploration endeavors. The program combines crewed and robotic missions, leveraging the strengths of both approaches to maximize scientific return and minimize risk.
The capsule portion of Orion is the only part of the spacecraft recovered after each mission. It includes features not present in the Apollo capsules, such as exercise equipment, a toilet, and a small galley, designed to improve the comfort and habitability for astronauts on longer duration missions.
