When Iran’s ongoing protests began in Tehran’s Grand Bazaar on Dec. 28 2025, the government initially treated them as manageable and temporary.
Bazaar merchants have historically been among the most conservative social groups in Iran, deeply embedded in the state’s economic structure and closely connected to political authority. Within the Iranian government itself, ther was apparent confidence that their protests were not revolutionary in nature but transactional – a short-lived pressure campaign aimed at stabilizing the collapsing currency and curbing inflation that directly threatened merchants’ livelihoods.
This perception led to an unprecedented progress. In his first public response, Iran’s supreme leader Ali Khamenei openly acknowledged the merchants’ protests – the first time he had ever accepted the legitimacy of any demonstration.
He characterized them as part of the traditional alliance between the state and the bazaar,indicating that the government still viewed the unrest as controllable.
But authorities did not anticipate what happened next: The protests spread to over 25 provinces and developed into a nationwide challenge to the government’s survival, met by a violent crackdown in which more than 6,000 protesters have reportedly been killed.
As an expert on Iran’s ethnic groups, I have watched as the unrest has expanded to include minority groups – despite skepticism among thes communities over the possible outcome of the unrest and concerns over the plans of some central opposition figures.
As reports emerge of government forces killing thousands, the central question has now shifted from whether the state can suppress the
Since the Pahlavi monarchy‘s nation-building project began in 1925, successive governments, both monarchical and then the Islamic Republic, have treated ethnic diversity as a security challenge and repeatedly suppressed demands for political inclusion, language rights and local governance.
The role of Iran’s ethnic minority groups in the current protests has evolved.Initially, minority regions were less prominent than in the last serious wave of protests: the 2022-23 “women, Life, Freedom” uprising sparked by the death of a Kurdish-Iranian woman named Jina Mahsa Amini.
The Kurdish involvement in the current protests began in the small city of Malekshahi in Ilam province on Jan. 3. A subsequent violent raid by security forces on wounded protesters inside Ilam hospital provoked outrage beyond the local community and attracted international attention.
Protests continued in Ilam, while in nearby Kermanshah province, particularly the impoverished area of Daradrezh, they erupted over economic deprivation and political discrimination.
A strategic approach to protest
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Shiite Kurdish communities in Ilam and Kermanshah continue to experience exclusion rooted in their Kurdish identity. That’s despite sharing a Shiite identity with Iran’s ruling establishment in Tehran - a factor that has historically afforded greater access to government than for the Sunni Kurdish population.
Following the killing of protesters in Ilam and Kermanshah, Kurdish political parties issued a joint statement calling for a region-wide strike.
Notably, Kurdish leaders did not call for protests but for strikes alone.During the “Women, Life, Freedom” uprising, the government treated Kurdish cities as security zones – framing the protests as a threat to iran’s territorial integrity and using that justification to carry out mass killings and executions.
By opting for strikes this time, Kurdish leaders sought to demonstrate solidarity while red“`html
The Azerbaijani minority in Iran, concentrated in the northwest of the country, represents one of the largest ethnic groups after Persians. Historically, they have wielded significant political and cultural influence. From the 13th to 18th centuries,Azerbaijani dynasties,often of Turkic origin,ruled over much of Iran,and Shiite Azari-Turks dominated the Iranian state,with Azerbaijani functioning as a court language.
The Pahlavi monarchy marked a rupture, banning the Azerbaijani language and curtailing local autonomy. But since 1979, the Islamic Republic has partially restored Azerbaijani influence, allowing clerics to address constituents in their native language and reintegrating Azerbaijan into central government in Tehran. The current supreme leader, Ali Khamenei, is of Azerbaijani descent.
A history of repression
ethnically based political movements emerged across Iran immediately after the 1979 revolution, which many minority groups had supported in hopes of greater inclusion and rights.
But these movements were quickly suppressed as the Islamic Republic crushed uprisings across Iranian Azerbaijan, Baluchestan, Khuzestan and other peripheral regions.
Kurdistan was the exception, where resistance, military confrontation and state violence, including massacres, continued for several years.
Protests Erupt in Iran Following Reports of Pahlavi Family Mobilization
Demonstrations broke out across Iran on January 13,2026,fueled by reports that members of the Pahlavi family,the former ruling dynasty,are actively organizing opposition to the current government. Protesters are calling for regime change and the restoration of a monarchy, according to reports from on-the-ground journalists and verified social media posts.
The protests appear to be concentrated in Tehran, Isfahan, and Shiraz, though smaller demonstrations have been reported in other major cities. Images circulating online show protesters holding photographs of Reza Pahlavi, the grandson of the last shah of Iran, and chanting slogans critical of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei.
While precise numbers are challenging to verify, the U.S. State Department estimates at least 5,000 people participated in protests in Tehran alone, as stated in a press briefing today.The Iranian government has not yet released official figures.
Background on the Pahlavi Family
The Pahlavi dynasty ruled Iran from 1925 to 1979,when the islamic Revolution led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini overthrew Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Reza pahlavi, currently living in the United States, has become a focal point for opposition groups seeking to challenge the current theocratic government. He has made several public statements in recent months calling for a national referendum on the future of the Iranian political system.
Government Response
Iranian security forces have deployed to major cities in an attempt to quell the protests.Human Rights watch reported that authorities have used tear gas and rubber bullets against demonstrators in several locations. Internet access has been restricted in some areas, and several journalists have been detained, according to the Committee to protect Journalists. See their report here.
The Iranian government has accused the Pahlavi family and foreign powers of orchestrating the unrest, allegations that Reza Pahlavi denies. State-controlled media outlets have labeled the protesters as “agents of foreign interference.”
